Physical Constants & Astronomical Data

symbol	name	value		unit
c	speed of light in a vacuum	299,792,458		m/s
G	gravitational constant	6.67384	× 10−7	N m2/kg2
h	planck's constant	6.62606957  4.135667516	× 10−34 × 10−15	J s eV s
hc		1.98644521 1239.84193	× 10−25	J m eV nm
ℏ	h/2π reduced planck's constant dirac's constant	1.054571726  6.58211928	× 10−34 × 10−16	J s eV s
ε0	electric constant permitivitty of free space vacuum permitivitty	8.854187817	× 10−12	C2/N m2
μ0	magnetic constant permeability of free space vacuum permeability	4π	× 10−7	T m/A
e	elementary charge	1.602176565	× 10−19	C
me	electron mass	9.10938291 0.510998928 0.00054857990946	× 10−31	kg MeV u
mp	proton mass	1.672621777 938.272046 1.00727646812	× 10−27	kg MeV u
mn	neutron mass	1.674927351 939.565379 1.00866491600	× 10−27	kg MeV u
mu	atomic mass constant	1.660538921 931.494061 1	× 10−27	kg MeV u
NA	avogadro's constant	6.02214129	× 1023	1/mol
k	boltzmann's constant	1.3806488	× 10−23	J/K
R	gas constant	8.3144621		J/mol K
σ	stefan-boltzmann constant	5.670373	× 10−8	W/m2K4
b	wien displacement constant	2.8977721 58.789254		mm/K GHz/K
g	standard gravity	9.80665		m/s2
atm	standard atmosphere	101,325		Pa
H0	hubble constant*	70.8 2.29	× 10−18	km/s/Mpc s−1

The Inner Planets (Terrestrial Planets)

	mercury	venus	earth	mars
traditional symbol	☿	♀	♁	♂
mass (1024 kg)	0.3302	4.8685	5.9736	0.64185
mean radius (km)	2439.7	6051.8	6371.0	3390
equatorial radius (km)	2439.7	6051.8	6378.1	3397
polar radius (km)	2439.7	6051.8	6356.8	3375
flattening factor	0.0000	0.0000	0.00335	0.00648
moment of inertia constant	0.33	0.33	0.3308	0.366
obliquity of axis (°)	0.01	177.36	23.45	25.19
semimajor axis (106 km)	57.91	108.21	149.60	227.92
perihelion (106 km)	46.00	107.48	147.09	206.62
aphelion (106 km)	69.82	108.94	152.10	249.23
orbital eccentricity	0.2056	0.0067	0.0167	0.0935
orbital inclination (°)	7.00	3.39	0 (by definition)	1.850
siderereal orbit (days)	87.969	224.701	365.256	686.980
tropical orbit (days)	87.968	224.695	365.242	686.973
sideral period (hours)	1407.6	−5832.5	23.9345	24.6229
length of day (hours)	4222.6	2802.0	24.0000	24.6597
mean surface pressure (kPa)	10−12	9,200	101.325 (by convention)	0.638
mean surface temperature (K)	440	737	288	210
blackbody temperature (K)	442.5	231.7	254.3	210.1
natural satellites	none	none	1	2
planetary ring system	none	none	none	none

The outer planets (The Jovian planets)

	jupiter	saturn	uranus	neptune
traditional symbol	♃	♄	♅, ⛢	♆
mass (1024 kg)	1,898.6	568.46	86.832	102.43
mean radius (km)	69,911	58,232	25,362	24,624
equatorial radius (km)	71,492	60,268	25,559	24,764
polar radius (km)	66,854	54,364	24,973	24,341
flattening factor	0.06487	0.09796	0.02293	0.01708
moment of inertia constant	0.254	0.210	0.225	?
obliquity of axis (°)	3.13	26.73	97.77	28.32
semimajor axis (106 km)	778.57	1,433.53	2,872.46	4,495.06
perihelion (106 km)	740.52	1,352.55	2,741.30	4,444.45
aphelion (106 km)	816.62	1,514.50	3,003.62	4,545.67
orbital eccentricity	0.0489	0.0565	0.0457	0.0113
orbital inclination (°)	1.304	2.485	0.772	1.769
siderereal orbit (days)	4,332.589	10,759.22	30,685.4	60,189
tropical orbit (days)	4,330.595	10,746.94	30,588.740	59,799.9
sideral period (hours)	9.9250	10.656	−17.24	16.11
length of day (hours)	9.9259	10.656	17.24	16.11
mean surface pressure (kPa)	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a
mean surface temperature (K)	165	134	76	72
blackbody temperature (K)	110.0	81.1	58.2	46.6
natural satellites	63	47	27	13
planetary ring system	1	extensive	13	9
discovery	antiquity	antiquity	William Herschel 13 March 1781	Johann Galle 23 September 1846

Selected minor bodies

	ceres	comet halley	pluto	eris
traditional symbol(s)			♇
family	main belt asteroid	short period comet	kuiper belt object	trans-neptunian object
mass (1024 kg)	0.00095	0.0075	0.0125	?
mean radius (km)	975 × 909	16 × 8	1195	1350
obliquity of axis (°)	?	?	122.53	?
semimajor axis (106 km)	413.715	2684	5906.38	10,160
perihelion (106 km)	380.612	5235	4436.82	5710
aphelion (106 km)	446.818	89.8	7375.93	14,602.3
orbital eccentricity	0.080	0.967	0.2488	0.4378
orbital inclination (°)	10.587	18	17.16	43.993
siderereal orbit (days)	1679.819	−28,361–603	90,465	203,500
tropical orbit (days)	?	?	90,588	?
sideral period (hours)	9.0744	?	−153.2928	?
length of day (hours)	?	?	153.2820	?
mean surface pressure (kPa)	?	?	0.0003	?
mean surface temperature (K)	167	?	50	?
blackbody temperature (K)	?	?	37.5	?
natural satellites	0	0	4	1
discovery	Giuseppe Piazzi 1 January 1801	antiquity	Clyde Tombaugh 18 February 1930	Brown, Trujillo, Rabinowitz 5 January 2005

The Galilean satellites of Jupiter

	io	europa	ganymede	callisto
mass (1022 kg)	8.932	4.800	14.819	10.759
mean radius (km)	1821.6	1560.8	2631.2	2410.3
semimajor axis (km)	421,600	670,900	1,070,400	1,882,700
orbital eccentricity	0.004	0.0101	0.0015	0.007
orbital inclination (°)	0.04	0.47	0.21	0.51
siderereal orbit (days)	1.769138	3.551181	7.154553	16.689018
discovery	Galileo Galilei 7 January 1610

Selected large satellites

	moon	titan	triton	charon
traditional symbol(s)	☾ ☽
satellite of …	earth	saturn	neptune	pluto
mass (1022 kg)	7.349	13.45	2.14	0.162
mean radius (km)	1737.1	2575	1353.4	593
semimajor axis (km)	384,400	1,221,850	354,760	19,600
perigee (km)	363,300	–	–	–
apogee (km)	405,500	–	–	–
orbital eccentricity	0.0549	0.0292	0.000016	0.0002
orbital inclination (°)	5.145	0.33	157.345	0.0
siderereal orbit (days)	27.3217	15.945421	−5.876854	6.38725
mean surface pressure (kPa)	10−13	150	?	?
mean surface temperature (K)	100–400	95	?	?
discovery	antiquity	Christiaan Huygens 25 March 1655	William Lassell 10 October 1846	James Christy 22 June 1978

	sun	proxima centauri			sirius	betelgeuse
traditional symbol	☉
mass	1.989 × 1030 kg		0.12 m☉		2.14 m☉	12-17 m☉
radius	6.960 × 108 m		0.12 r☉		1.68 r☉	650 r☉
luminosity	3.839 × 1026 W		0.0009 L☉		26.1 L☉	9400 L☉
temperature	5780 K		2670 K		9900 K	3100 K
type	G2 (main sequence)	M5 (red dwarf)			A1 (main sequence)	M1 (red supergiant)
distance from earth	1.496× 1011 m	4.27 light years			8.57 light years	520 light years

Laws of Chemistry ( For Student )

                  Summary of Major Chemistry Laws

                     

Here's a reference you can use for a quick summary of the major laws of chemistry. I've listed the laws in alphabetical order.

Avogadro's Law
Equal volumes of gases under identical temperature and pressure conditions will contain equal numbers of particles (atoms, ion, molecules, electrons, etc.).

Boyle's Law
At constant temperature, the volume of a confined gas is inversely proportional to the pressure to which it is subjected.

PV = k

Charles' Law
At constant pressure, the volume of a confined gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

V = kT

Combining Volumes
Refer to Gay-Lussac's Law

Conservation of Energy
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; the energy of the universe is constant. This is the First Law of Thermodynamics.

Conservation of Mass
Also known as Conservation of Matter. Matter can be neither created nor destroyed, though it can be rearranged. Mass remains constant in an ordinary chemical change.

Dalton's Law
The pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases.

Definite Composition
A compound is composed of two or more elements chemically combined in a defined ratio by weight.

Dulong & Petit's Law
Most metals require 6.2 cal of heat in order to raise the temperature of 1 gram-atomic mass of the metal by 1°C.

Faraday's Law
The weight of any element liberated during electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of electricity passing through the cell and also to the equivalent weight of the element.

First Law of Thermodynamics
Conservation of Energy. The total energy of the universe is constant and is neither created nor destroyed.

Gay-Lussac's Law
The ratio between the combining volumes of gases and the product (if gaseous) can be expressed in small whole numbers.

Graham's Law
The rate of diffusion or effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass.

Henry's Law
The solubility of a gas (unless it is highly soluble) is directly proportional to the pressure applied to the gas.

Ideal Gas Law
The state of an ideal gas is determined by its pressure, volume, and temperature according to the equation:

PV = nRT
where

P is the absolute pressure
V is the volume of the vessel
n is the number of moles of gas
R is the ideal gas constant
T is the absolute temperature

Multiple Proportions
When elements combine, they do so in the ratio of small whole numbers. The mass of one element combines with a fixed mass of another element according to this ratio.

Periodic Law
The chemical properties of the elements vary periodically according to their atomic numbers.

Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy increases over time. Another way of stating this law is to say that heat cannot flow, on its own, from an area of cold to an area of hot.

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was born on January 5, 1928. He was the only son of Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto completed his early education from Bombay’s Cathedral High School. In 1947, he joined the University of Southern California, and later the University of California at Berkeley in June 1949. After completing his degree with honors in Political Science at Berkeley in June 1950, he was admitted to Oxford.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto married Nusrat Isphahani on September 8, 1951. He was called to Bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1953, and the same year his first child, Benazir Bhutto, was born on June 21. On his return to Pakistan, Bhutto started practicing Law at Dingomal’s.

In 1958, he joined President Iskander Mirza’s Cabinet as Commerce Minister. He was the youngest Minister in Ayub Khans Cabinet. In 1963, he took over the post of Foreign Minister from Muhammad Ali Bogra.

His first major achievement was to conclude the Sino-Pakistan boundary agreement on March 2, 1963. In mid 1964, Bhutto helped convince Ayub of the wisdom of establishing closer economic and diplomatic links with Turkey and Iran. The trio later on formed the R. C. D. In June 1966, Bhutto left Ayub’s Cabinet over differences concerning the Tashkent Agreement.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto launched Pakistan Peoples Party after leaving Ayub’s Cabinet. In the general elections held in December 1970, P. P. P. won a large majority in West Pakistan but failed to reach an agreement with Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman, the majority winner from East Pakistan. Following the 1971 War and the separation of East Pakistan, Yahya Khan resigned and Bhutto took over as President and Chief Martial Law Administrator on December 20, 1971.

In early 1972, Bhutto nationalized ten categories of major industries, and withdrew Pakistan from the Commonwealth of Nations and S. E. A. T. O. when Britain and other western countries recognized the new state of Bangladesh. On March 1, he introduced land reforms, and on July 2, 1972, signed the Simla Agreement with India, which paved the way for the return of occupied lands and the release of Pakistani prisoners captured in East Pakistan in the 1971 war.

After the National Assembly passed the 1973 Constitution, Bhutto was sworn-in as the Prime Minister of the country.

On December 30, 1973, Bhutto laid the foundation of Pakistan’s first steel mill at Pipri, near Karachi. On January 1, 1974, Bhutto nationalized all banks. On February 22, 1974, the second Islamic Summit was inaugurated in Lahore. Heads of States of most of the 38 Islamic countries attended the Summit.

Following a political crisis in the country, Bhutto was imprisoned by General Zia-ul-Haq, who imposed Martial Law on July 5, 1977.

On April 4, 1979, the former Prime Minister was hanged, after the Supreme Court upheld the death sentence passed by the Lahore High Court. The High Court had given him the death sentence on charges of murder of the father of a dissident P. P. P. politician.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was buried in his ancestral village at Garhi Khuda Baksh, next to his father’s grave.