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Sunday, August 24, 2014

History of Mathematics

Mathematics is the science of numbers and there are several different branches of mathematical science including algebra, geometry, and calculus. The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines mathematics as the science of numbers and their operations, interrelations, combinations, generalizations, and abstractions and of space configurations and their structure, measurement, transformations, and generalizations.
Mathematics is not an invention. Discoveries and laws of science are not considered inventions. Inventions are material things and processes. However, there is a history of mathematics, a relationship between mathematics and inventions, and mathematical instruments are considered inventions.

According to Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times, mathematics as an organized science did not exist before the classical Greeks of the period from 600 to 300 BC entered upon the scene. There were, however, prior civilizations in which the beginnings or rudiments of mathematics were created.
When civilization began to trade, a need to count was created. When humans traded goods, they needed a way to count the goods and to calculate the cost of those goods. The very first device for counting numbers was the human hand, counting on fingers. To count beyond ten fingers, mankind used natural markers, rocks or shells. From that point, counting boards and the abacuswere invented.

Abacus

One of the first tools for counting invented, the abacus was invented around 1200 A.D. in China.

Accounting

The innovative Italians of the Renaissance (fourteenth through sixteenth century) are widely acknowledged to be the fathers of modern accounting .

Algebra

The first treatise on algebra was written by Diophantus of Alexandria in the 3rd century AD. Algebra comes from the Arabic word al-jabr an ancient medical term meaning "the reunion of broken parts.''

Archimedes

Archimedes was a mathematician and inventor from ancient Greece, best known for his discovery of the relation between the surface and volume of a sphere and its circumscribing cyclinder, for his formulation of a hydrostatic principle (Archimedes' principle) and for inventing the Archimedes screw (a device for raising water).

Differential

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (b. 1646, d. 1716) was a German philosopher, mathematician, and logician who is probably most well known for having invented the differential and integral calculus (independently of Sir Isaac Newton).

Graph

A graph is a pictorial representation of statistical data or of a functional relationship between variables. William Playfair (1759-1823) is generally viewed as the inventor of most of graphical forms used to display data, including: line plots, bar chart, and pie chart.

Logarithms and the Decimal Point

John Napier was the Scottish mathematician who invented logarithms and the decimal point.

Pythagoreanism

Pythagoreanism is a school of philosophy school and a religious brotherhood, believed to have been founded by Pythagoras of Samos, who settled in Croton in southern Italy about 525 BC. The group had a profound effect on the development of mathematics.

Protractor

An instrument used to construct and measure plane angles. The simple protractor looks like a semicircular disk marked with degrees, from 0º to180º. The simple protractor is an ancient device. The first complex protractor was created for plotting the position of a boat on navigational charts. Called a three-arm protractor or station pointer, it was invented in 1801, by Joseph Huddart, a U.S. naval captain. The centre arm is fixed, while the outer two are rotatable, capable of being set at any angle relative to the centre one.

Slide Rulers

Circular and rectangular slide rules, an instrument used for mathematical calculations were both invented by mathematician William Oughtred .

Zero

Zero was invented by the Hindu mathematicians Aryabhata and Varamihara in India around or shortly after the year 520 A.D.

Math Symbol

In 1557, the = sign first used by Robert Record. In 1631, >,
It should be noted that the brief descriptions given are just that "brief." Their purpose is to hopefully instill a little curiosity and encourage the reader to seek out further knowledge on these people and topics.



50,000 B.C.E.

Evidence of counting
50,000 B.C.E.

Neanderthal man
25,000 B.C.E.

Primitive geometrical designs
25,000 B.C.E.

Paleolithic art: Cro-Magnon man



4000 B.C.E.

Use of metals



3500 B.C.E.

Writing
3000 B.C.E.

3000 B.C.E.

2773 B.C.E.

Likely introduction of the Egyptian calendar
(Some hypothesize 4241 B.C.E. as the origin.)






2500 B.C.E.

2400 B.C.E.

2400 B.C.E.

Sumerian-Akkadian Empire
1850 B.C.E.







1800 B.C.E.

Code of Hammurabi



1700 B.C.E.

Stonehenge in England
1650 B.C.E.







1400 B.C.E.




1350 B.C.E.

Use of iron: sundials: water clocks



1200 B.C.E.

Trojan war



776 B.C.E.

First Olympiad



753 B.C.E.




740 B.C.E.

Works of Homer and Hesoid



586 B.C.E.

Babylonia captivity
585 B.C.E.




518 B.C.E.







538 B.C.E.




480 B.C.E.

Battle of Thermopylae



461 B.C.E.

Beginning of the Age of Pericles
450 B.C.E.




430 B.C.E.

430 B.C.E.




429 B.C.E.

427 B.C.E.

Birth of Plato



420 B.C.E.







404 B.C.E.




399 B.C.E.

360 B.C.E.




350 B.C.E.




332 B.C.E.







323 B.C.E.




322 B.C.E.

Death of Aristotle



305 B.C.E.

300 B.C.E.







280 B.C.E.




264 B.C.E.

First Punic War
260 B.C.E.




230 B.C.E.




225 B.C.E.




212 B.C.E.







210 B.C.E.

150 B.C.E.







146 B.C.E.

Destruction of Carthage
140 B.C.E.




75 B.C.E.

.





44 B.C.E.

Death of Julius Caesar


















60 C.E.




75 C.E.

Works of Heron of Alexandria



100 C.E.

Menelaus' Spherica






122 C.E.

150 C.E.







180 C.E.

Death of Marcus Aurelius
250 C.E.




320 C.E.

Pappus' Mathematical Collections






324 C.E.

Founding of Constantinople
405 C.E.




415 C.E.







455 C.E.

Vandals sack Rome



476 C.E.

Traditional “fall” of Rome
524 C.E.




529 C.E.




530 C.E.




641 C.E.







732 C.E.

775 C.E.







814 C.E.

830 C.E.







999 C.E.

Gebert becomes Pope Sylvester II



1066 C.E.




1096 C.E.

First Crusade
1114 C.E.




1142 C.E.







1170 C.E.

1202 C.E.







1204 C.E.

Crusaders sack Constantinople



1215 C.E.

Magna Carta
1270 C.E.







1271 C.E.

Travels of Marco Polo:
mechanical clocks (approx.)



1286 C.E.

Invention of eyeglasses (approx.)
1303 C.E.







1348 C.E.




1364 C.E.

Death of Petrarch



1431 C.E.

Joan of Arc burned



1440 C.E.




1453 C.E.

Fall of Constantinople
1464 C.E.




1482 C.E.







1483 C.E.

Murder of the princes in the Tower



1485 C.E.

Henry VII, the first Tutor
1489 C.E.




1492 C.E.

1492 C.E.

Columbus discovers the Americas



1517 C.E.

Protestant Reformation



1520 C.E.

Field of the Cloth of Gold
1527 C.E.







1534 C.E.

1543 C.E.




1544 C.E.




1545 C.E.







1553 C.E.




1558 C.E.

Accession of Elizabeth I in England
1564 C.E.

Birth of Galileo
1564 C.E.

Birth of Shakespeare and death of Michelangelo
1572 C.E.

1572 C.E.

1579 C.E.







1584 C.E.

Assassination of William of Orange



1588 C.E.

Drake's defeat of the Spanish armada
1595 C.E.







1598 C.E.




1603 C.E.

Death of Elizabeth I
1609 C.E.

Kepler's Astronomia nova :
Galileo's telescope



1614 C.E.







1616 C.E.

Deaths of Shakespeare and Cervantes
1620 C.E.

1620 C.E.

Landing of Pilgrims in America



1626 C.E.

Death of Francis Bacon



1628 C.E.

Harvey's De motu cordis et sanguinis
1629 C.E.







1636 C.E.

Harvard College founded
1637 C.E.




1639 C.E.




1640 C.E.




1642 C.E.







1643 C.E.

Assassination of Louis XIV



1644 C.E.

Torricelli's Barometer



1649 C.E.

Charles I beheaded
1655 C.E.

Wallis publishes Arithmetica infinitorium



1658 C.E.

Huygens' cyclodial pendulum clock






1660 C.E.

The Restoration
1662 C.E.

Royal Society founded



1666 C.E.

Académie des Sciences founded



1667 C.E.




1668 C.E.

Mercator publishes Logarithmotechnia



1670 C.E.

Barrow's Lectiones geometriae



1678 C.E.







1679 C.E.




1683 C.E.

Siege of Vienna
1684 C.E.







1685 C.E.

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
1687 C.E.







1689 C.E.

The Glorious Revolution
1690 C.E.

Rolle's Trait d`algèbre



1696 C.E.

The Bernoulli's Brachistochrone and L'Hospital's Rule






1702 C.E.

The start of Queen Anne's War
1706 C.E.




1715 C.E.

Taylor's Methodus incrementorium



1718 C.E.

De Moive's Doctrine of Chances
1718 C.E.

Fahrenheit's thermometer
1730 C.E.

Stirling's formula



1733 C.E.




1734 C.E.

Berkeley's The Analyst






1740 C.E.

Accession of Frederick the Great
1742 C.E.

Maclaurin's Treatise of Fluxions
1742 C.E.

Centigrade thermometer
1748 C.E.




1750 C.E.

Cramer's Rule






1752 C.E.

Franklin's kite experiment



1767 C.E.

Watt's improved steam engine
1770 C.E.

Hyperbolic trigonometry






1774 C.E.

Discovery of oxygen



1776 C.E.

1777 C.E.




1781 C.E.

Discovery of Uranus by Herschel



1788 C.E.

Lagrange's Mécanique analytique






1789 C.E.

French Revolution
1794 C.E.

Legendre's Elements de géométrie
1794 C.E.




1795 C.E.

École Polytechnique and École Normale established
1796 C.E.

Laplace's Systeme du monde (nebular hypothesis )
1796 C.E.

Vaccination
1797 C.E.

Lagrange's Fonctions analytique






1799 C.E.

Metric system introduced



1800 C.E.

Volta's battery
1801 C.E.

Gauss' Disquisitiones arthmeticae :
Ceres discovered






1803 C.E.

Dalton's atomic theory



1804 C.E.

Napoleon crowned emperor
1810 C.E.

Gergonne started the journal Annales






1815 C.E.

Battle of Waterloo



1820 C.E.
Oersted discovered electromagnetism
1822 C.E.
Fourier series


1826 C.E.
Crelle's Journal founded:
Principle of Duality:
Elliptic functions
1826 C.E.
Ampere's work in electrodynamics
1827 C.E.
Cauchy's Calculus of Residues1827 C.E.
Ohm's Law
1829 C.E.
Lobachevskian geometry:
Death of Abel






1831 C.E.
Faraday's electromagnetic induction
1832 C.E.
Death of Galois:
Babbage's Analytical Engine



1836 C.E.
Liouville's Journal founded1836 C.E.
Telegraph invented
1843 C.E.
Hamilton's quaternions





1846 C.E.
Neptune discovered:
Use of anesthesia



1848 C.E.
Marx's Communist Manifesto



1850 C.E.
Dickens' David Copperfield
1854 C.E.
Boole' Laws of Thought





1858 C.E.
The Atlantic cable laid



1859 C.E.
Darwin's Origin of Species



1861 C.E.
Start of American Civil War



1865 C.E.
Assassination of Abraham Lincoln



1868 C.E.
Cro-Magnon caves discovered



1869 C.E.
Suez Canal finished
1873 C.E.
Hermite proved e transcendental


1874 C.E.
Cantor's Mengenlehre





1876 C.E.
Alexander Bell's telephone
1882 C.E.
Lindemann proved  π   transcendental


1888 C.E.
American Mathematical Society founded1888 C.E.
Pasteur Institute founded
1889 C.E.
Peano's postulates





1895 C.E.
Roentgen discovered X-rays
1896 C.E.
Prime Number Theorem proved1896 C.E.
Discovery of radioactivity



1897 C.E.
Electrons discovered



1898 C.E.
Radium dscovered
1899 C.E.
Hilbert'sGrundlagen der Geometrie


1900 C.E.
Hilbert's Problems :
Russell and Whitehead's Principia, Vol.1
1900 C.E.
Freud's Die Traumdeutung
1901 C.E.
Planck's quantum theory1901 C.E.
First radio receiver
1903 C.E.
Lebesgue integration1903 C.E.
First powered air flight
1905 C.E.
Einsteins's special relativity





1906 C.E.
Kellogg invents cornflakes



1908 C.E.
Model T Ford



1914 C.E.
Assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand



1915 C.E.
Panama Canal opened
1916 C.E.
Einstein's general theory of relativity


1917 C.E.
Hardy and Ramanujan1917 C.E.
Russian Revolution:
The Balfour Declaration



1919 C.E.
League of Nations



1927 C.E.
Lindberg flew the Atlantic



1928 C.E.
Fleming discovers penicillan
1931 C.E.
Gödel's Theorem





1932 C.E.
Atom split



1933 C.E.
Hitler became Chancellor
1936 C.E.
Ahlfors and Douglas awarded the first Fields Medals


1939 C.E.
Volume I of Bourbaki's Eléments





1941 C.E.
Pearl Harbor



1945 C.E.
Bombing of Hiroshima



1946 C.E.
First meeting of the U.N.



1950 C.E.
Korean War began



1957 C.E.
Sputnik I launced



1958 C.E.
Berlin airlift
1961 C.E.
Lorenz on chaotic behavior


1963 C.E.
Paul J. Cohen on the continuum hypothesis1963 C.E.
Assassination of President Kennedy



1965 C.E.
Death of Sir Winston Churchill



1967 C.E.
Summer of Love



1969 C.E.
Man walks on the moon
1970 C.E.
Matiyasevich shows Hilbert's tenth problem is unsolvable





1974 C.E.
President Nixon resigns



1975 C.E.
End of Vietnam War
1976 C.E.
Four Color conjecture verified by computer


1977 C.E.
Adelman, Rivest and Shamir introduce public-key codes1977 C.E.
First Star Wars movie released
1982 C.E.
Mandelbrot's The fractal geometry of nature





1984 C.E.
Ethiopian famine



1989 C.E.
Fall of Berlin Wall



1990 C.E.
Nelson Mandela released from prison



1991 C.E.
Soviet Union disintegrates
1994 C.E.
Wiles proves Fermat's Last Theorem


2000 C.E.
Mathematical Challenges of the 21st Century announced

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