Laws of Chemistry ( For Student )

                  Summary of Major Chemistry Laws

                     

Here's a reference you can use for a quick summary of the major laws of chemistry. I've listed the laws in alphabetical order.

Avogadro's Law
Equal volumes of gases under identical temperature and pressure conditions will contain equal numbers of particles (atoms, ion, molecules, electrons, etc.).

Boyle's Law
At constant temperature, the volume of a confined gas is inversely proportional to the pressure to which it is subjected.

PV = k

Charles' Law
At constant pressure, the volume of a confined gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

V = kT

Combining Volumes
Refer to Gay-Lussac's Law

Conservation of Energy
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; the energy of the universe is constant. This is the First Law of Thermodynamics.

Conservation of Mass
Also known as Conservation of Matter. Matter can be neither created nor destroyed, though it can be rearranged. Mass remains constant in an ordinary chemical change.

Dalton's Law
The pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases.

Definite Composition
A compound is composed of two or more elements chemically combined in a defined ratio by weight.

Dulong & Petit's Law
Most metals require 6.2 cal of heat in order to raise the temperature of 1 gram-atomic mass of the metal by 1°C.

Faraday's Law
The weight of any element liberated during electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of electricity passing through the cell and also to the equivalent weight of the element.

First Law of Thermodynamics
Conservation of Energy. The total energy of the universe is constant and is neither created nor destroyed.

Gay-Lussac's Law
The ratio between the combining volumes of gases and the product (if gaseous) can be expressed in small whole numbers.

Graham's Law
The rate of diffusion or effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass.

Henry's Law
The solubility of a gas (unless it is highly soluble) is directly proportional to the pressure applied to the gas.

Ideal Gas Law
The state of an ideal gas is determined by its pressure, volume, and temperature according to the equation:

PV = nRT
where

P is the absolute pressure
V is the volume of the vessel
n is the number of moles of gas
R is the ideal gas constant
T is the absolute temperature

Multiple Proportions
When elements combine, they do so in the ratio of small whole numbers. The mass of one element combines with a fixed mass of another element according to this ratio.

Periodic Law
The chemical properties of the elements vary periodically according to their atomic numbers.

Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy increases over time. Another way of stating this law is to say that heat cannot flow, on its own, from an area of cold to an area of hot.

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was born on January 5, 1928. He was the only son of Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto completed his early education from Bombay’s Cathedral High School. In 1947, he joined the University of Southern California, and later the University of California at Berkeley in June 1949. After completing his degree with honors in Political Science at Berkeley in June 1950, he was admitted to Oxford.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto married Nusrat Isphahani on September 8, 1951. He was called to Bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1953, and the same year his first child, Benazir Bhutto, was born on June 21. On his return to Pakistan, Bhutto started practicing Law at Dingomal’s.

In 1958, he joined President Iskander Mirza’s Cabinet as Commerce Minister. He was the youngest Minister in Ayub Khans Cabinet. In 1963, he took over the post of Foreign Minister from Muhammad Ali Bogra.

His first major achievement was to conclude the Sino-Pakistan boundary agreement on March 2, 1963. In mid 1964, Bhutto helped convince Ayub of the wisdom of establishing closer economic and diplomatic links with Turkey and Iran. The trio later on formed the R. C. D. In June 1966, Bhutto left Ayub’s Cabinet over differences concerning the Tashkent Agreement.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto launched Pakistan Peoples Party after leaving Ayub’s Cabinet. In the general elections held in December 1970, P. P. P. won a large majority in West Pakistan but failed to reach an agreement with Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman, the majority winner from East Pakistan. Following the 1971 War and the separation of East Pakistan, Yahya Khan resigned and Bhutto took over as President and Chief Martial Law Administrator on December 20, 1971.

In early 1972, Bhutto nationalized ten categories of major industries, and withdrew Pakistan from the Commonwealth of Nations and S. E. A. T. O. when Britain and other western countries recognized the new state of Bangladesh. On March 1, he introduced land reforms, and on July 2, 1972, signed the Simla Agreement with India, which paved the way for the return of occupied lands and the release of Pakistani prisoners captured in East Pakistan in the 1971 war.

After the National Assembly passed the 1973 Constitution, Bhutto was sworn-in as the Prime Minister of the country.

On December 30, 1973, Bhutto laid the foundation of Pakistan’s first steel mill at Pipri, near Karachi. On January 1, 1974, Bhutto nationalized all banks. On February 22, 1974, the second Islamic Summit was inaugurated in Lahore. Heads of States of most of the 38 Islamic countries attended the Summit.

Following a political crisis in the country, Bhutto was imprisoned by General Zia-ul-Haq, who imposed Martial Law on July 5, 1977.

On April 4, 1979, the former Prime Minister was hanged, after the Supreme Court upheld the death sentence passed by the Lahore High Court. The High Court had given him the death sentence on charges of murder of the father of a dissident P. P. P. politician.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was buried in his ancestral village at Garhi Khuda Baksh, next to his father’s grave.

Chandra Gupta II

                                                            

Chandragupta (meaning protected by the moon) II also known as Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya was the son of Samudra Gupta and Datta Devi. He ruled India from 375 to 413 AD. His reign is considered as the golden age of not only Gupta dynasty but also of ancient India. While Chandra Gupta I founded the greatness of the Gupta Empire and Samudra Gupta expanded and consolidated it, Chandra Gupta II extended it to the furthest limits from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea leading to an era of overseas commerce with the east and west, and economic prosperity of his people. He attained success by pursuing both favorable marital alliance and an aggressive expansionist policy. Although he was not direct successor of Samudra Gupta as historians believe that he was to follow Rama Gupta but due to his military acumen Chandra Gupta II was able to win the empire. The Allahabad pillar inscription mentions the marriage of Chandragupta with a Naga princess Kuveranaga. Chandragupta’s daughter Prabhavati was married to the powerful Vakataka king Rudrasena II. His remarkable victory was due to his victory over the Shaka-Kshatrapa dynasty and annexation of their kingdom in Gujarat on which he was given the title of Shakari meaning the foe of the Shakas.

Chandragupta II controlled a vast empire, from the mouth of the Ganges to the mouth of the Indus River and from what is now North Pakistan down to the mouth of the Narmada. Pataliputra continued to be the capital of his huge empire but Ujjain too became a sort of second capital. A large number of gold coins issued by the Gupta dynasty is a testament to the economic prosperity of the reign. Chandragupta II also started producing silver coins in the Shaka tradition. Fa-hsien the Chinese pilgrim was the contemporary to the Chandra Gupta II and he provides the account of prosperity of his reign as there was absence of capital punishment, low poll-tax and land tax. Most citizens did not consume onions, garlic, meat and wine, the exception to this were the Chandalas, who were shunned in society and segregated from other people. Chandragupta II was a patron of art as there was a circle of poets known as the Nine Gems in his court. The greatest among them was Kalidasa, who is quite well known for writing numerous pieces of immortal literature including ‘Shakuntala’, and is often referred to as the Shakespeare of India. Another figure was Varahamihira who was a famous astronomer and mathematician.